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1. MODAL AUXILIARY
   1.  Daftar modal auxiliary

can	may	must	shall	will
could	might	ought to	should	would

1.  Definition

Modal auxiliaries, modal auxiliary verbs, atau kadang-kadang disebut juga sebagai modal verbs, biasanya disingkat menjadi modals, bentuk tunggalnya: modal, adalah kata-kata bantu yang kita pakai jika kita ingin menunjukkan sikap (perasaan/mood) terhadap apa yang kita ucapkan atau ketika kita prihatin tentang dampak perkataan kita terhadap orang yang sedang bicara dengan kita atau yang sedang kita kirimi surat.

Selain itu, modal dipakai untuk menyatakan pendapat, misalnya menolak atau menyetujui sebuah dalil, rencana atau usul.

Kesulitan pemakaian modal: hampir semua modal memiliki lebih daripada satu arti.

Para lawyer, interpreter, pengusaha dan calon peserta uji TOEFL, TOEIC dan IELTS sebaiknya benar-benar menguasai pemakaian dan manfaat modal karena modal umumnya mengungkapkan mood/sikap/perkiraan/keraguan penuturnya.

Para penerjemah novel, film, drama dan pidato juga demikian.

Penerjemah sebaiknya lebih menekankan informasi daripada arti terjemahannya.

Contoh:

1. can: (i) menunjukkan kemampuan dan keterampilan yang umum maupun tertentu serta  kepercayaan pada saat ini, (ii) mengungkapkan kesadaran atau pengetahuan lewat panca indra, atau kesimpulan yang logis saat ini;  (iii)  membicarakan kebenaran umum; (iv) minta ijin atau bantuan; (v) memberikan ijin pada saat ini; (vi) menawarkan bantuan pada saat ini.

Contoh:

• He can lift the big rock alone. (kemampuan umum)
• Some people can run faster than others. (kemampuan khusus)
• Can I join the meeting? (minta ijin)
• He can join our meeting. (memberikan ijin)
• Can you help me? (minta bantuan)
• This can be the right answer to his question. (kesimpulan yang logis)
• Can I help you? (Menawarkan bantuan)
• Some birds can fly high in the sky. (kebenaran umum)

Catatan:

(a) could dipakai untuk (i) menunjukkan kemampuan dan keterampilan yang umum maupun tertentu serta  kepercayaan di masa lampau, dan (ii) mengungkapkan kesadaran atau pengetahuan lewat panca indra, atau kesimpulan yang logis di masa lampau

Contoh:

• When I was younger, I could lift any weight of up to 50 kgs.
• He could read small lettering well without the help of eye-glasses when he was younger.
• The money could be enough to settle all his debts last week.
• Until last month my mother could barely walk.

(b) could lebih formal daripada can ketika memberikan atau minta ijin, atau minta atau menawarkan bantuan

Contoh:

(i) Could I join the meeting? (minta ijin)

• He could join our meeting. (memberikan ijin)
• Could you help me? (minta bantuan)
• Could I help you? (menawarkan bantuan)

© can tidak boleh dipakai untuk (i) menunjukkan kemampuan dan keterampilan yang umum maupun tertentu serta  kepercayaan di masa depan, dan (ii) mengungkapkan kesadaran atau pengetahuan lewat panca indra, atau kesimpulan yang logis di masa depan.

 Sebagai penggantinya, kita boleh memakai be able to atau be possible to.

Contoh:

• He will be able to lift the big rock alone if he practices weight-lifting hard, atau

It will be possible for him to lift the big rock alone if he practices weight-lifting hard.

• Some athletes will be able to run faster than others after a lot of exercises, atau

It will be possible for some athletes to run faster than others after a lot of exercises.

d. subject + can (past tense: could) juga dipakai untuk mengungkapkan (i) kemungkinan umum ketika berarti “it is possible,” yang berarti keadaan memungkinkan; dan (ii) kemungkinan sesekali. Jadi, hal itu sangat berbeda dari informasi yang diungkapkan oleh “may” yang menunjukkan keraguan si penutur.

Contoh:

• You can ski on the hills. (karena ada cukup salju)

Setara dengan: It is possible for you/everyone to ski on the hills, atau

                      It si possible that you/everyone ski on the hills.

Arti:: Bisa bagi anda/setiap orang  untuk main ski di perbukitan itu, atau

                     Anda/setiap orang bisa main ski di perbukitan itu.

Informasi: Setiap orang bisa main ski di perbukitan itu.

• You can travel to the country. (karena ada cukup uang, atau negeri itu aman)

Setara dengan: It is possible for you to travel to the country.

Arti: Anda bisa berjalan-jalan ke negeri itu.

Informasi: Setiap orang bisa berjalan-jalan ke negeri itu.

• Malaria can be dangerous. (kemungkinan sesekali)

Setara dengan: It is possible for malaria to be dangerous.

Arti: Malaria bisa berbahaya.

Informasi: Kadang-kadang malaria berbahaya.

Informasi: Malaria tidak selalu berbahaya.

Selain itu, can (past tense: could) juga dipakai untuk mengungkapkan  fakta-fakta yang umumnya benar, terutama ketika fakta-fakta itu terkait dengan sesuatu atau seseorang yang mampu menimbulkan dampak, atau berperilaku secara tertentu.

 e. can juga dipakai dalam membentuk combination adjective, misalnya can-do, yang berarti “yakin mampu melakukan segala-galanya.”

Contoh:

• Indonesia’s can-do generation will be the engine of growth.

2. May/might: untuk (i) menunjukkan keraguan atau perkiraan tentang terjadi atau adanya sesuatu atau seseorang, atau kepastian di bawah 50% tentang hal tersebut, sekarang, masa lampau atau mendatang, sehingga terjemahannya adalah mungkin,  (ii) minta atau menawarkan ijin.

Contoh:

• He is outside the room now. (pasti; fakta)
• He may/might be outside the room now. (kemungkinan atau keraguan sekarang)
• It rains hard almost every day here now. (pasti; fakta; kebiasaan)
• It may/might rain hard. (perkiraan tentang kejadian mendatang)
• Cultural factors have made the Japanese a superior people. (pasti; fakta)
• Cultural factors may have made the Japanese a superior people. (kemungkinan atau perkiraan kejadian masa lampau dalam direct speech)
• The cultural expert said that cultural factors had made the Japanese a superior people. (pasti, fakta)
• The cultural expert said that cultural factors might have made the Japanese a superior people. (kemungkinan atau perkiraan kejadian masa lampau dalam indirect speech atau reported speech)
• May I come in? (minta ijin; lebih formal daripada can dan could)
• Might I come in? (minta ijin, lebih formal daripada may; sekarang jarang dipakai karena dianggap kuno dan digantikan oleh could: Could I come in?)

• …. never forget that every single organic being around us may/might be said to be striving to the utmost to increase in number …. (The Origin of Species, p. 53)
• The face of Nature may/might be compared to a yielding surface, with ten thousand sharp wedges packed close together and driven inwards by incessant blows, sometimes one wedge being struck, and then another with grater force. (p. 53)

Tetapi, might harus dipakai di reported speech dan conditional statement jika pernyataan yang bersangkutan dimulai dengan sebuah past tense.

Contoh:

Mary said John might come here. (reported speech)

If we invited him, John might come here. (conditional)

Catatan: may juga punya arti yang setara dengan possibly, yang menunjukkan bahwa hanya ada kepastian di bawah 50% bahwa sesuatu akan terjadi. Jadi, may sebenarnya menunjukkan keraguan si penutur.  Might bahkan lebih lebih meragukan. Karena itu,   dalam percakapan, keraguan dapat ditingkatkan dengan menekankan kata may/might. Dalam tulisan, tanda baca ‘ persis di belakang may atau might.

Contoh:

•  The bank ‘may lend John the money (dengan tekanan yang kuat pada may) berarti bahwa  bank itu sangat tidak mungkin meminjami John uang.
• The bank ‘might lend John the money (tekanan yang kuat pada might) berarti bahwa bank itu sama sekali tidak mungkin meminjami John uang.

Catatan: Untuk menunjukkan kepastian di atas 50%, kita pakai kata probable kalau adjective, atau probably jika adverb. Untuk sesuatu yang sangat mungkin (>70%), kita pakai kata likely. Tetapi, probable, probably, dan likely bukan modal.

Contoh:

(i)The wages of labour, therefore, are likely to be higher in manufacturers of the former, than in those  of the latter kind. (The Wealth of Nations, p. 132)

Untuk menunjukkan kemungkinan yang lebih besar, kita bisa pakai gabungan dua kata: may well (sangat/benar-benar mungkin= fairly likely), tetapi tetap berkepastian di bawah likely.

Contoh:

(i)The wages of labour may, therefore, well be higher in manufacturers of the former, than in those  of the latter kind.

Beda arti dan informasi antara:

1. may/might dan can:

– May/might menunjukkan keraguan, atau kepastian di bawah 50% saat ini, masa lampau atau mendatang;

– Can menunjukkan kemampuan saat ini.

Contoh:

• He may be outside the room now.

Arti: Dia mungkin ada/berada di luar ruangan sekarang.

Informasi: Ada kepastian di bawah 50% orang itu ada di luar ruangan sekarang.

Kalimat Inggrisnya bisa digantikan dengan:

Perhaps he is outside the room now, dengan arti dan informasi yang sama.

Jika pasti atau fakta: He is outside the room now.

• He can be outside the room now.

Arti: Ia mampu/bisa ada/berada di luar ruangan sekarang tetapi dia tidak di luar ruangan sekarang.

Informasi: Orang itu mempunyai kemampuan untuk ada di luar ruangan sekarang jika perlu atau diminta, tetapi ia belum di luar ruangan.

Kalimat Inggrisnya bisa digantikan dengan:

• – He is able to be outside the room now.

Catatan:

• Rising interest rates may squeeze factories in the coming months.

Arti: Suku-suku bunga yang sedang naik mungkin akan mencekik pabrik-pabrik pada bulan-bulan yang mendatang.

Informasi: Ada kepastian bawah 50% bahwa suku-suku bunga yang sedang naik akan mencekik pabrik-pabrik ….

 Kalimat Inggrisnya bisa diganti dengan:

Perhaps rising interest rates will squeeze factories in the coming months.

Catatan: Dalam bidang formal, misalnya surat perjanjian atau kontrak yang resmi, can tidak dipakai karena dianggap informal sehingga digantikan dengan kata be able to ketika berarti bisa/mampu, atau may ketika berartiboleh/diijinkan/dapat. Tetapi, bentuk negatifnya, yaitu cannot, kadang-kadang dipakai. Selain itu, dalam konteks lain, may bisa berarti mungkin ketika menunjukkan kepastian bawah 50%.

Contoh:

• Either of the Parties hereto may terminate this Agreement on any early date.
• Confidential information shall mean any information on the business, financial or other affairs of the Company which may from time to time be delivered, divudlegd, disclosed, improted or otherwise communicated by or on behalf of the Company to the Distributor.

2. may dan might  dan could: may sedikit lebih formal daripada might dan could ketika kita berkata bahwa ada suatu kepastian bawah 50% sesuatu sedang berlangsung saat ini atau merupakan fakta.

Contoh:

• He may/might/could be outside the room now.
• The country may/might/could start exporting quality rice next year.

Untuk menambah tingkat kepastian, kita tambahkan kata well sesudah may/might/could.

Contoh:

• He may/might/could well be outside the room now.
• The country may/might/could well start exporting quality rice next year.
• China could well be on its way to the launch of its most significant commodity futures as the Shganghai Futures Exchange has vetted applications from brokerages to conduct crude oil futures business. (Bloomberg).
•  A number of cultural factors may/might/could well have made the Japanese a superior people.

Perkataan may well, might well, atau could well setara dengan “fairly likely.”

Implikasi pada terjemahan

• This system imbued ordinary Japanese with what may well have become the highest quality standards in the world.

Terjemahan:

-Sistem itu mengilhami orang Jepang biasa dengan apa yang mungkin benar-benar telah menjadi standar-standar mutu yang tertinggi di dunia, atau

– Sistem itu … dengan apa yang mungkin benar-benar telah menjadi standar-standar mutu yang tertinggi di dunia.

Dengan pengertian bahwa perkataan “may well have made” menunjukkan sesuatu yang mungkin benar-benar telah terjadi di masa lampau.

Karena itu, kalimat Inggrisnya bisa diganti menjadi:

– This system imbued ordinary Japanese with what had fairly likely become  the highest quality standards in the world, atau

– This system … with what was fairly likely to become the highest quality standards in the world.

Kata probable, atau bentuk adverb-nya, yaitu probably,  bisa dipakai untuk menunjukkan kemungkinan sampai dengan 70%. Kata likely dipakai untuk menunjukkan kepastian atas 70%. Dalam standard British English, kata likely bisanya ditambahi kata more atau most di depannya, juga dengan mengubah susunan katanya. Dalam North American English, tidak biasa.

Contoh:

• North American English:

He is likely outside the room now, atau

He is likely to be outside the room now, atau

It is likely that he is outside the room now.

Dalam British English:

He is more/most likely outside the room now, atau

He is more/most likely to be outside the room now, atau

It is more/most likely that he is outside the room now.

• It is likely for the country to start exporting quality rice next year.
• It is more/most likely for him to be outside the room now.

Catatan lebih lanjut tentang likely:

1. Diperlakukan sebagai adjective ketika menunjukkan seseorang atau sesuatu (i) kelihatan pasti; (ii) terlihat seperti kebenaran, fakta atau kepastian, (iii) terlihat memenuhi persyaratan atau perkiraan, atau kelihatan cocok; (iv) memperlihatkan harapan prestasi atau keunggulan; menimbulkan harapan.

Contoh:

• A likely candidate= calon yang mungkin menang, atau calon yang cocok
• He is likely to succeed in his endeavor= Dia kelihatan akan berhasil dalam upayanya.
• A fine, likely young man= pria muda yang sangat terhormat dan menimbulkan harapan
• A likely story= cerita yang mungkin benar
• An unlikely outcome= suatu hasil yang tidak mungkin terjadi

2. Diperlakukan sebagai adverb ketika menunjukkan kemungkinan (probability) sesuatu akan terjadi sampai 70%. Kamus Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (OALD) menyatakan bahwa dalam (i) Standard British English, likely tidak biasa berdiri sendiri dan harus dipakai bersama-sama dengan qualifier very, more atau most; (ii) dalam informal North American  English, likely sering berdiri sendiri. Webster’s Encyclopedic Dictionary (WED) menyatakan bahwa penambahan qualifier tidak harus.

 Contoh:

• We will most likely see him later. (OALD)
• He said that he would likely run for President. (OALD)
• It will likely be a bitter debate. (WED)
• The shipment will likely arrive on Thursday. (WED)

Tetapi, para ahli grammar lebih menyukai likely sebagai adjective.

Dalam banyak hal, modals tidak dipakai untuk menyebutkan fakta.

Beda antara fakta dan kemungkinan, kesimpulan, pendapat dll

• She is 25 years old. (fakta)

She will be 25 years old next year. (fakta yang akan timbul)

She must be 25 years old. (pendapat/kesimpulan)

= She is most probably 25 years old, atau

She is certainly 25 years old.

She may be 25 years old. (kemungkinan)

= Perhaps she is 25 years old.

She might be 25 years old. (keraguan meningkat)

= Probably she is 25 years old.

• John came here. (fakta)

John may/might come here. (kemungkinan)

= Perhaps he comes there.

Dalam advanced English, secara umum, modals dipakai sebagai berikut:

1.3.1 tentang informasi, dalil, rencana

untuk menunjukkan tingkat kepastian (mungkin, sangat mungkin, pasti) anda tentang ketepatan atau kebenaran perkataan kita: sedikit mungkin, mungkin, sangat mungkin, atau pasti

• In such places, therefore, though the rate of a particular person’s profits may be very high, the sum or amount of them can never be very great, nor consequently that of his annual accumulation. (possibility & usual inability)
• In great towns, on the contrary, trade can be extended as stock increases, and the credit of a frugal and thriving man increases much faster than his stock. (The Wealth of nations, p. 131) (usual ability)
•  In order, however, that this equality may take place in the whole of their advantages or disadvantages, three things are requisite even where there is the most perfect freedom.
• She must be almost at breaking point and seeing me might do her more harm than good.

• This system imbued ordinary Japanese with what may well have become the highest quality standards in the world.
• Einstein himself was well aware that proof would not be easy. (p. 257)
• For these reasons, of for no other, it is worth considering the pros and cons of what must for Einstein have been a difficult situation. (p.217)

1. terhadap tingkat niat atau keinginan untuk berbuat atau tidak berbuat sesuatu

Contoh:

• She won’t love you. (penolakan saat ini yang sangat kuat)
• She can’t love you. (penolakan saat ini karena ada alasan khusus)
• She couldn’t love you. (penolakan saat ini karena kemungkinan akan ada kesalahan, atau tidak dimungkinkan oleh keadaan)
• She wouldn’t love you. (penolakan di masa lampau)

 Catatan:

1. Benda dan binatang juga bisa dianggap menunjukkan hal-hal yang sama.

Contoh:

• The tape won’t adhere to the wall.
• The tape can’t adhere to the wall.
• The tape couldn’t adhere to the wall.
• The tape wouldn’t adhere to the wall yesterday.
• The bird won’t fly.
• The bird can’t fly.
• The bird couldn’t fly.
• The bird wouldn’t fly this morning.
• The car won’t start.
• The car can’t start.
• The car couldn’t start.
• The car wouldn’t start this morning.
•   
• Beda antara will dan would
• Will dipakai untuk menunjukkan kejadian masa depan yang biasa.
• Will + bare infinitive dapat dipakai untuk mengungkapkan kebiasaan/sifat ketika kita ingin menekankan sifat si pelaku bukan tindakan si pelaku,

He will usually help others whenever he can.

• Would adalah bentuk lampau will ketika will dipakai untuk menunjukkan niat atau kejadian masa depan yang biasa; would berada  di dalam kalimat anak, sebagai reported speech atau bagian dari conditional statement.

Namun, wouldn’t dapat berdiri sendiri untuk menunjukkan niat negatif (penolakan) di masa lampau.

Contoh:

• The manager wouldn’t come yesterday. (Manajer itu menolak datang kemarin)
• The country wouldn’t import rice last year.

Sebaliknya, would sebagai bentuk lampau will tidak bisa berdiri sendiri.

Contoh:

The manager would come yesterday. (salah)

The country would import rice last year. (salah)

Karena itu, kata would sebaiknay digantikan dengan wanted/intended/offered to sehingga menjadi:

• The manager wanted/intended/offered to come yesterday.
• The country  wanted/intended/offered to import rice last year.

•  Selain itu, would dapat menunjukkan tindakan sifat/kebiasaan/ciri seseorang saat ini yang menjengkelkan penuturnya; biasanya sebagai bagian dari komentar.

Contoh:

• Tim is angry.

                      He ‘would!, atau He ‘would be angry!

                      (penutur jengkel; Tim selalu marah)

• A cup of coffee in this cafe costs a lot of money.

It ‘would!, atau It ‘would cost a lot of money!

(penutur jengkel)

13.2.1 would like

13.2.1.1 mau, ingin

(i) I would like to thank you so much for your help.

13.2.1.2 berharap

(i) People would like to think that the food found in cities is more delicious than those in villages.

(ii) In the same way people would like to think that sensual pleasures are the greatest pleasures.

1. terhadap orang lain

Modals dipakai untuk menimbulkan dampak atau hasil psikologis atau mental tertentu pada lawan bicara.  Pemilihan modals bergantung pada sejumlah faktor, misalnya hubungan antara penutur dan lawan bicaranya, apakah keadaannya formal atau informal, dan penting tidaknya perkataan si penutur.

Contoh:

• Sit down. (kepada seorang anak atau teman dekat; tetapi, kasar terhadap orang yang belum dikenal)

Will you sit down? (cukup sopan)

Would you sit down? (sopan)

Could you sit down? (sangat sopan)

• • ijin atau permohonan
• You can go there now. (usual/common permission)

(ii) You could go there now. (polite permission)

(iii) Can I come in now? (usual request)

(iv) Could I come in now? (polite request)

1. must
2. You must go now. (keharusan)
3. He must be tired now. (sangat mungkin)
   1. Shall, should (untuk will dan would, lihat 1.3.3.2)

Perbedaan antara tense, question dan modal auxiliary statement (atau modal statement)

Simple Future Tense, Future Perfect Tense?	Question	Modal Statement yang menunjukkan perintah, permintaan, undangan, atau nasihat
He will come in. Dia akan masuk.	Will he come in? Akankah dia masuk?	(i) Will you come in? Masuk (permintaan atau perintah, yang bergantung pada nadanya). Sopan: Will you come in, please? Masuklah (perintah yang sopan), atau silakan masuk (undangan). Formal: Will you please come in? Masuklah, atau silakan masuk.
2. He will give me a favour	Will he give you a favour?	Will you give me a favour? Bantu saya. Will you give me a favour, please? Formal: Will you please give me a favour?
I will work here with him.	Will you work here with him?	You will work here with him. Anda kerja di sini dengan dia (perintah).
I will go there tonight.	Will you go there tonight? Akankah anda pergi ke sana malam ini?
		I will go there now. Will you go there now? (rencana/niat) Berencanakah/berniatkah anda pergi ke sana sekarang?
I/we/he/she/they will go there tonight.	Will you/we/he/she/they go there tonight?
		I/we shall go now/tomorrow. Saya/kami harus pergi sekarang/besok. Shall I/we go now/tomorrow? (peraturan)
		He/she shall go now/tomorrow. Shall he/she go now/tomorrow?
Reported speech: I/we said that I/we would/should go there now. Saya/kami berkata bahwa saya/kami akan pergi ke sana sekarang	I/we asked,”Shall/will I/we go there now?”	Nasihat/anjuran: I/we said that I/we should go there now. Saya/kami berkata bahwa saya/kami sebaiknya pergi sekarang (ii) I/we said that we go* there now (formal British English, tetapi common American English). Catatan: * go menjadi subjunctive mood, yaitu mood yang menggambarkan suatu tindakan atau keadaan (tidak sebagai fakta tetapi) sebagai kalau-kalau atau kemungkinan. Lihat  2.2.6 & 2.3)  b.Janji, perkiraan, harapan, atau pertanyaan tentang hari kemudian: I/we said that I/we would go there now. Catatan: “would” tidak bisa dihilangkan.

Contoh-contoh yang lain:

• He may come now. (polite permission)
• He might come now. (very formal possibility)
• May I come in now? (polite request)
• Might I come in now? (very polite request)
• You must follow our rules. (strong command)
• You ought to follow our rules. (obligation)
• You shall go now. (formal command)
• Shall I go now? (rule)
• Will you go there now? (plan/intention)
• Will you come in? (invitation)
• You will work here with him. (command)
• I shouldn’t do that. (regret)

Contoh-contoh yang lain:

• We can read of things that happened 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where people first learned to write.
•  They can tell us something about people’s migrations.
• None could write down what they did.
•  There are some parts of the world where people even now people cannot write.
•  They may also have used wood and skins.
• The only way by which they can preserve their history is by recounting it as sagas—legends which have been handed down from one generation of story-tellers to another.
• Why, you may wonder, should spiders be our friends?
• Insects would make it impossible for us to live in the word if it were not been for the protection we get from insect-eating animals.
• Spiders are not insects. One can tell the difference almost at a glance for a spider always has eight legs and insects never more than six.

should dipakai untuk mengungkapkan anjuran, nasihat atau penyesalan

Contoh:

• His tenure was a disaster from Day One and he should have quit immediately.
•  The “negative list” approach to foreign investment should be expanded to the whole country as soon as possible.
• Laws, rules and policies out of tune with the oeravll direction and principle of opening-up should be abolished or revised within a time limit.
•  

1.5 Tidak boleh ada dua buah modal auxiliary yang letaknya berturut-turut.

Modal auxiliary yang kedua harus diganti:

Can > (to) be able to

May > (to) be permitted to

Must > have to, has to; had to

Contoh:

1. He will be able to speak fluent English next year.
2. Nobody will be able to do it alone.
3. Who must be able to translate this book next month?
4. Who has to be able to translate it next month?
5. When will we be permitted to come into the room?
6. The warriors will have to go now.
7. Must all of us be able to compete against the Japanese in the next five years?
8. Will the interns be able to help us in our work next month?
9. Will you have to be able to apply your knowledge by next month?
10. Which of you must be able to do the assignment tomorrow evening?

Exercises:  Is there any modal auxiliary in each of the following questions?

• Will they have learned a lot of important lessons from Zen Buddhism in the next three years?
• Was there any spiritual element in all the Japanese achievement?
• Would there be greater achievement if the role of spirit were greater?
• What arose in the 11^th and 12^th centuries to become the great advocates of Zen Buddhism?
• Why did the samurai warrior class become the advocates?
• What taught the Japanese an austere life-style to achieve national greatness?
• What did the samurai’s lives depend on?
• Whose lives depended on extraordinary skill in the martial arts?
• How many percent of the population did the samurai make up?
• Who also imbued Japanese culture with a strong martial nature?
• Which rules were taught to apply to learning these arts?
• What conditioned the Japanese to do things in a precise order and to abhor weakness or failure of any kind?
•   What are taught as guidelines for success in business?
• Who explains the secret to achieving success in kendo?
• Who will be the headmaster of the new kendo school?
• When will you explain this secret to the headmaster?
• How many exercises must be repeated?
• Can you empty your mind of any other matters so that you can control it?
•  Who must open the mind fully in order to perceive completely and accurately whatever situation is at hand?
• What one must nurture in order to perceive reality and to be able to read an opponent’s intentions?
• When will you apply your ingenuity to your translation study?